losses of both wars resulted in China signing treaties with exploitative and borderline embarrassing terms (similar to the 1919 Treaty of Versailles) – including land, special trade, status, extra-judiciary power
China forcibly opened up to foreign trade
concessions = formation of foreign areas like Beijing’s French or American concession
extra-judiciary power = foreigners tried by their own country’s laws instead of Chinese law
this enraged nationalist Chinese, who would later to go Versailles to ask for equal status
by the 1900s, many Chinese people were not only addicted, but also dependent → making it increasingly difficult to shut off trade or foreign imports
drugs and money flowed from India to Britain to China